When the COVID-19 pandemic struck in 2020, tracking the spread of the virus and identifying affected populations quickly became a global priority. Geospatial technologies, particularly Geographic Information Systems (GIS), emerged as an intuitive and effective solution. In the United States, the Johns Hopkins Medical Centre developed a visual dashboard that became a widely used reference for policymakers, researchers, and the public to monitor the progress and movement of the virus. This innovation drew from the work of Ensheng Dong, a researcher who designed a GIS tracker just a month after learning about the outbreak, primarily to ensure the safety of his family in Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, China. Dong’s tracker later became the blueprint for many other tracking systems around the world. This case demonstrated the power of geospatial intelligence (GEOINT), a discipline combining GIS, remote sensing, and satellite reconnaissance, in monitoring infectious disease transmission, bolstering readiness for biological emergencies, and detecting latent biosecurity threats.
In India, outbreaks of viruses such as Nipah or Human Metapneumovirus (HMPV) underscore the urgent need for advanced disease mapping and surveillance. Current approaches largely rely on house-to-house checks and testing of animal-based samples, such as bat droppings in the case of Nipah. These methods, while useful, are limited in scope and speed. GEOINT offers a valuable complement to these efforts through real-time tracking of disease spread. Governments and health agencies can harness satellite data to monitor animal migration, detect heat signatures, and analyse patterns in environmental conditions that influence disease outbreaks. GIS platforms can then map transmission paths, identify high-risk zones, and overlay data on ecological factors to predict potential hotspots.
Successful applications of this approach can be found in the mapping of affected regions during the 2014 Ebola crisis in West Africa, where remote sensing and GIS were instrumental in evaluating the readiness of healthcare infrastructure. The potential of geospatial technology extends beyond outbreak response into prevention and long-term biosafety planning. A proactive use of GEOINT involves identifying and mitigating biological threats before they escalate. For instance, satellite monitoring can be used to track animal mortality rates, observe migration patterns, monitor water sources near hazardous industrial sites, and oversee the establishment and compliance of biosafety laboratories. Such data, if made publicly available through transparent tracking platforms, could enhance global accountability, deter the development of biological weapons, and enable faster mobilisation in the face of potential biological risks.
A particularly promising advancement is the integration of GEOINT with environmental genomic analysis, giving rise to a new discipline called Biological Intelligence (BIOINT). BIOINT incorporates environmental DNA (eDNA) and RNA analysis into geospatial frameworks, enabling continuous surveillance of ecosystems for biological threats. Unlike traditional biodefense systems, which tend to react to outbreaks, BIOINT emphasizes constant monitoring to provide early warnings. By establishing baseline readings for ecosystems, BIOINT can quickly detect anomalies that may indicate the emergence of new pathogens or the use of bioweapons. Importantly, this approach can be effective even in regions where direct monitoring is hindered by political or geographical barriers, as environmental data from shared river systems or transboundary habitats can still be collected and analysed. While GEOINT is already proving its worth in mapping and surveillance, BIOINT adds a powerful capability for real-time environmental monitoring, offering a way to identify potential hazards before they manifest as crises.
However, the adoption of GEOINT and BIOINT raises complex ethical and legal questions that must be addressed to ensure responsible use. One of the foremost concerns is the risk to individual privacy. Contact tracing and GIS mapping of human health data can inadvertently expose personal information, leading to discrimination or stigmatisation of affected individuals. Moreover, publishing such data without consent poses a broader threat to civil liberties. In India, the Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDPA) does not explicitly address geospatial data, allowing Data Fiduciaries to use personal data until consent is withdrawn. Given the sensitive nature of biological and health data, stronger safeguards are necessary. These should include explicit regulations for the collection, storage, and use of such data, with a particular emphasis on ensuring that it cannot be traced back to specific individuals.
Another ethical dimension involves informed consent. In many instances, satellite surveillance and GIS operations are carried out without the knowledge of the populations being monitored. Ethical practice demands that communities be informed about the nature, purpose, and scope of any surveillance in their regions, especially when human health data is involved. While environmental data collection may not pose the same direct privacy risks, transparency remains essential. Furthermore, biological data is often difficult or impossible to anonymise completely, heightening the importance of strict guidelines for its handling.
One potential model for improving global cooperation is the World Health Organisation’s (WHO) Geolocated Health Facilities Data Initiative (GHFDI), which compiles detailed information on the locations and capabilities of health facilities worldwide. Expanding this model to include biosafety risk data could create a powerful tool for global biodefense. A WHO-managed database that tracks environmental and biological risks could inform decision-making, enhance transparency, and encourage nations to maintain accountability to a trusted global platform.
Ultimately, GEOINT and BIOINT represent a significant step forward in the evolution of global biodefense strategies. They offer a shift from reactive to predictive and preventative approaches, enhancing our ability to manage pandemics, detect bioweapons, and mitigate broader biosafety risks. By establishing transparent standards, ensuring informed consent, and creating robust accountability mechanisms, these tools can be used not just for disease tracking, but as foundational elements of a secure, responsible, and collaborative approach to global health security. If implemented thoughtfully, GEOINT and BIOINT could become vital pillars in protecting humanity from the biological threats of the future, ensuring that science and technology remain aligned with ethical responsibility in the pursuit of a safer world.
Dr. Sharanpreet Kaur is an Assistant Professor of International Relations at the School of Social Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar.
