Indian art has traditionally manifested itself not only through magnificent architectural wonders, wall murals, and cave paintings but also in the nuanced intricacies of miniature paintings. These intricate and exquisite artworks, intended for personal indulgence rather than public exhibition, were treasures in private spaces. Holding these pieces allowed the observer to experience an intimate, tactile connection with the art, transcending mere visual appreciation.
This artistic tradition has its roots in the East’s manuscript paintings, particularly the Pala tradition, and in the Jain manuscripts of Gujarat and Rajasthan in the West. With the arrival of Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd-as Samad, who Humayun had invited to establish the Mughal atelier, it discovered a parallel stream in the North. Together, these influences marked the inception of a unique, highly detailed painting tradition that thrived in the Indian Subcontinent. Spanning the Mughal, Deccani, and Rajput courts, this tradition blossomed over centuries across varied landscapes, from the hills to the plains.
In these miniature artworks, each stroke and detail are imbued with profound significance, beckoning the viewer on a journey of discovery and revelation. The unfolding narrative gently leads the eye from one intricately rendered detail to another, each contributing to a grander story that transcends the artwork’s physical limits. These pieces often depict stories from epics, tales of kingship, religious texts, poetry, and beyond.
The creation of these exquisite ‘jewels’ was a meticulous process, typically executed in ateliers. This collaborative production involved master artists, apprentices, illuminators, colourists, calligraphers, burnishers, and those who crafted the paper and mixed the colours. Each participant played a role in this symphony of creation, resulting in artworks rarely attributed to a single individual.
Natural materials provided the palette for these paintings, with colours derived from minerals and plants. Hemp Fiber was used to create thin sheets of paper, known as ‘warqa.’ These sheets were then layered to create a thicker, more durable ‘wasli.’
Dubbed ‘Miniature’ by the Western world, this term highlights the small scale of the artwork in contrast to larger art forms. Yet, within the Indian context, these miniature masterpieces are a testament to a rich tradition of personal connection and artistic expression. In these artistic expressions, the line between artist and observer becomes beautifully blurred, united in the shared experience of aesthetic enchantment.
In the context of South Asia, the trajectory of miniature painting, from its zenith in the Mughal court to its perceived decline during the British colonial era, reflects a complex interplay of cultural, economic, and technological factors. These paintings, once integral to the splendour of the Mughal era, experienced a shift in fortunes with the advent of British rule, as changing aesthetic preferences and technological advances diminished the traditional demand for this art form. Royal patronage waned, significantly impacting the innovation in this artistic field.
Key developments that precipitated this decline were the introduction of photography and the growing influence of Western art forms, notably led by artists like Raja Ravi Verma, marked a new epoch in visual arts. This once-celebrated art form found its audience diminishing in favour of cheaper, mass-produced lithographs, relegating detailed, labour-intensive miniatures to ‘tourist kitsch’ and ‘exotic imagery,’ catering to a growing artefact market in Europe and America.
Despite these shifts, the legacy of miniature painting continued to inspire artists across undivided India. Figures such as Abanindranath Tagore, Nandalal Bose, and Abdur Rahman Chughtai drew upon this tradition, blending indigenous aesthetics with modern sensibilities. This era saw a concerted effort to rejuvenate traditional art forms in the context of national identity and cultural heritage, particularly against the backdrop of the independence movement and the search for a distinct artistic voice.
Art schools established in Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, and Lahore in the mid to late 19th century played a critical role in shaping the artistic output of these cities. They emphasized draftsmanship and design for industrial crafts while propagating Western artistic techniques. However, the rise of nationalist sentiments and the Swadeshi movement in the early 20th century marked a notable shift in the artistic paradigm.
A leader in this transformation was Abanindranath Tagore in Calcutta, who introduced the quasi-oriental style called the Bengal School. Heavily drawing on miniature traditions, this style modernized Mughal and Rajput methods as a response to the Western-centric education of the British-run art schools. The Bengal School became synchronous with the symbolism of the independence movement, epitomizing a revival of indigenous artistic expression. Influential teachers like Tagore mentored artists such as Nandalal Bose and Asit Haldar, inspiring a generation that redefined Indian modern art. Artists like Jamini Roy, influenced by Western techniques, also popularized village and folk art, merging traditional Indian art with contemporary styles.
The Bengal School influenced artists like Chughtai and Allah Bux in Lahore. Chughtai’s early work, reminiscent of Tagore’s, evolved in the 1940s to include Islamic themes reflecting the Muslim nationalist sentiments.
In India, miniature paintings found some support from government craft promotion institutions, being mass-produced for tourists and export. Though commercialized, the craft persevered through family workshops and individual practitioners across cities and towns, maintaining distinct regional styles like Pahari and Rajput.
In Pakistan, patronage shifted to individual artists in urban centres like Lahore. Over time, generational practitioners shifted away from traditional art, prompting institutions to formalize and include it in curricula. Pakistani institutionalization of miniature painting marked a significant evolution. Training programs at institutions like the National College of Arts (NCA), led by Haji Muhammad Sharif and later, Zahoor ul Akhlaq, nurtured a new generation of artists. These artists, including Waseem Ahmed, Imran Qureshi, and Shahzia Sikander, redefined miniature painting with contemporary themes and techniques. Their work, merging traditional motifs with modern mediums and formats, underscores the art form’s dynamic evolution. Today, miniature painting transcends its classic format, embracing large-scale works, animation, digital art, and more, ensuring its vibrant relevance in the 21st century.
Prominent Indian artists like Nilima Sheikh significantly redefined miniature painting, bringing a contemporary edge to this historical art form. Sheikh turned her attention to miniature painting mid-career and is self-taught in the technique. Her works are influenced pictorially by pre-modern paintings and other Asian art traditions, shaping her visual structuring and composition. Sheikh employs the narrative format of traditional storytelling found in pattachitra and manuscript paintings. Her unique approach is evident in her series When Champa Grew Up (1984), a collection of twelve tempera paintings on handmade wasli paper from Sanganer, using paint tempered with gum Arabic, mediums traditionally used in Rajasthani and Pahari paintings on paper, which narrates the true story of a young married girl tortured and burnt by her in-laws.
Contemporary artist and art historians such as Varunika Saraf and Desmond Lazaro represent a new generation of artists deeply immersed in miniature painting, bringing fresh perspectives and methodologies. Saraf, introduced to miniatures in her childhood, later honed her skills under Kavita Deuskar at the College of Fine Arts in Hyderabad. She further explored Indian painting traditions as an art historian during her doctoral studies. At the centre of her creative practice is making painting materials, which include the ‘wasli’ or paper and hand ground pigment paints.
Lazaro’s journey took him from the UK to India in 1990, where he trained for twelve years under the late master painter Bannu Ved Pal Sharma in Jaipur. He has also extensively researched and written on the process of creation of traditional pigments, papers and cloth. His work, which often explores themes like cartography and cosmic systems, signifies a modern reinterpretation of the medium.
Each artist, through their unique experiences and interactions, has contributed to the renaissance of this art form, blending traditional techniques with modern narratives and themes. The personal stories and creative paths of these artists, along with those like The Singh Twins and Giridhar Goud, underscore the dynamic and evolving nature of miniature painting in the contemporary art world.
The Singh Twins, contemporary British artists of South Asian heritage, were captivated by imperial Mughal paintings’ intricate details during childhood museum visits in India. Expecting to find similar aesthetics in contemporary Indian art galleries, they were disappointed by the dominance of Western styles. This spurred them to revive the traditional form, studying and replicating classic artworks. Employing both traditional painting and digital media, the Twins use their art to assert their Indian identity and counter the Eurocentric bias they encountered. Their works challenge views that deem traditional Indian art as irrelevant in contemporary contexts, pioneering modern Indian miniature style since the 90s.
Giridhar Goud, an alumnus of the Baroda School of Art, experienced a pivotal moment in his artistic journey in 1996 when he encountered Vijaya Hagaragundi, a practitioner of the Surpur style of miniature painting from Gulbarga. This encounter significantly altered Goud’s artistic path. He embarked on extensive travels throughout India, immersing himself in diverse visual experiences from museum collections to temple wall paintings, which helped him refine his unique artistic language.
During his travels, Goud engaged with numerous traditional artists, including Uma Shankar Sharma from Jaipur, deepening his understanding of conventional techniques and materials. His interaction with prominent Indian miniature collectors, notably Jagdish Mittal from Hyderabad, further enriched his artistic perspective.
Inspired by the art of Vijayanagara and the Surpur style, Goud dedicated himself to studying Hindu mythology and iconography. His artworks, created on both wasli and canvas, showcase his distinct South Indian style, which has garnered admiration and recognition. His work stands as a testament to the fusion of traditional artistic methods with individual creativity, contributing uniquely to the contemporary Indian art scene.
As the landscape of South Asian art evolved further, the atelier system’s resurgence in miniature painting marked a return to traditional, apprenticeship-based training. The contemporary revival of the atelier system is much credited to artists like Waswo X Waswo and Alexander Gorlizki, who stand out for their unique approaches. These collaborations challenge traditional artists to refine their skills and create works of a higher quality, focusing on artistic merit rather than commercial viability.
Waswo X Waswo, an American photographer and artist, he began collaborating with local Udaipur artists, notably R. Vijay. This partnership marked a departure from the traditional karkhana style, where groups of artists worked anonymously on single paintings. Waswo encouraged individual recognition, coaxing Vijay to sign his works, thereby shifting the dynamic from anonymity to acknowledgment of the artists’ contributions. His notable series, “A Studio in Rajasthan,” reflects his collaborative spirit, showcasing partnerships with artists like Rajesh Soni, Dalpat Jingar, R. Vijay, and Chirag and Shankar Kumawat.
He is renowned for contemporary miniature paintings, integrates elements of Mughal Miniature Paintings, Mewar Court Miniatures, and The Company School. Waswo’s art often features him as the protagonist, interwoven with Indian characters, adding a confessional and humorous dimension to his paintings. These pieces explore themes of identity and ‘Otherness’, achieving a balance between the poignant and the problematic, engaging the viewer in both visual and thematic depth.
Alexander Gorlizki was first introduced to miniature paintings during his childhood at the gallery of family friend Francesca Galloway. His works are born from his obsession with Indian Miniature paintings—a tradition he has ingeniously adapted. While not trained in the miniature tradition himself, Gorlizki brings his artistic visions to life through his atelier in Jaipur, led by master artist Riyaz Uddin, his collaborator for over 26 years. He creates a detailed composition for each painting, encompassing figures, iconography, patterns, colours which are then expertly realized on paper by his team. His works, often move back and forth between his Brooklyn studio and Jaipur, until his vision is perfectly realised. His works are surreal dreamscapes that reinterpret Indian Miniature painting with a unique visual language, that reference various traditions and cultures.
COVID-19 pandemic has sparked a notable resurgence in the field of Indian miniature art, a development that possibly stems from artists seeking a deeper sense of identity and a shift in their creative priorities during a challenging period. This renaissance was aided by the unique circumstances of the lockdown, offering artists time to pursue their passions, experiment with new mediums, and refine their skills.
Manjot Kaur, from Ludhiana, was drawn to miniature painting through lectures by the esteemed Prof. B N Goswamy. While she had formal training in art, the intricate detail demanded by miniatures fascinated her, leading her to develop her skills in this area further during the pandemic. Inspired by mythology and nature, Kaur’s work during this period has been marked by imaginative compositions that often feature anthropomorphic figures or ‘Hybrid Beings.’ Her art not only showcases technical prowess but also conveys meaningful messages about ecological preservation and women’s empowerment.
Divya Pamnani’s artistic journey was catalyzed by the lockdown, allowing her to dive into art history studies and begin training under the renowned Bikaner master artist Mahaveer Swami. Pamnani’s work is characterized by a departure from traditional miniature archetypes, as she explores symbolism and imagery in her creations. Similarly, Delhi-based artist Gargi Chandola took advantage of the lockdown to train under a Kangra master artist. Chandola’s works often delve into themes of femininity and societal observations. Utilizing recurring characters and motifs, she weaves modern narratives and comments on the male gaze.
While traditional practitioners tend to stick to portraying subject matters and themes in archetypes that have been passed on over the years, the newer generation of these artists are willing to experiment with modern motifs. Dildar Qureshi, a young artist from Kota, Rajasthan, is an example of the younger generation embracing and evolving the miniature tradition. Following in the footsteps of his father, Wasim Muhammad, Dildar has been drawing from a young age. His work, “The Rajasthani Motor-biker,” exemplifies the fusion of traditional techniques with contemporary themes, through which traditional artists are hoping to find a place in the mainstream art world.
This story of decline, resurgence, and transformation underscores the resilience and adaptability of the miniature painting tradition. It reflects wider themes of cultural perseverance, innovation, and the pursuit of identity in the midst of changing social and political landscapes. This reassessment of tradition reveals that it is no longer perceived as being in opposition to modernity. A new wave of contemporary artists in India marks a resurgence of interest in miniature paintings, reconnecting with our indigenous roots and traditions. These contemporary expressions are set to inspire future generations within the same lineage, promising a sustained legacy of miniature art.
Supriya Lahoti is a museum professional and art consultant
Jayesh Mathur is an architect, independent scholar, and Indian art collector.